In this issue we feature 9 current papers on the theme of social capital, chosen by Fabio Sabatini (Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”):

1. In platforms we trust: misinformation on social networks in the presence of social mistrust Charlson, G.

2. The legacies of armed conflict: insights from stayees and returning forced migrants Isabel Ruiz; Carlos Vargas-Silva

3. Settlers and Norms Joanne Haddad

4. Justifying Dissent Leonardo Bursztyn; Georgy Egorov; Ingar Haaland; Aakaash Rao; Christopher Roth

5. Strangers and Foreigners: Trust and Attitudes toward Citizenship Bertocchi, Graziella; Dimico, Arcangelo; Tedeschi, Gian Luca

6. No inventor is an island: social connectedness and the geography of knowledge flows in the US Diemer, Andreas; Regan, Tanner

7. The preserving effect of social protection on social cohesion during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from Kenya Strupat, Christoph

8. The Politicized Pandemic: Ideological Polarization and the Behavioral Response to COVID-19 Gianluca Grimalda; Fabrice Murtin; David Pipke; Louis Putterman; Matthias Sutter

9. Social norms or enforcement? A natural field experiment to improve traffic and parking fine compliance Sinning, Mathias; Zhang, Yinjunjie

10. Voice and Political Engagement: Evidence From a Natural Field Experiment Anselm Hager; Lukas Hensel; Christopher Roth; Andreas Stegmann

11. Firm innovation and generalized trust as a regional resource Bischoff, Thore Sören; Hipp, Ann; Runst, Petrik

12. Combating online hate speech: The impact of legislation on Twitter Andres, Raphaela; Slivko, Olga

1. In platforms we trust: misinformation on social networks in the presence of social mistrust Charlson, G. We examine the effect social mistrust has on the propagation of misinformation on a social network. Agents communicate with each other and observe information sources, changing their opinion with some probability determined by their social trust, which can be low or high. Low social trust agents are less likely to be convinced out of their opinion by their peers and, in line with recent empirical literature, are more likely to observe misinformative information sources. A platform facilitates the creation of a homophilic network where users are more likely to connect with agents of the same level of social trust and the same social characteristics. Networks in which worldview is relatively important in determining network structure have more pronounced echo chambers, reducing the extent to which high and low social trust agents interact. Due to the asymmetric nature of these interactions, echo chambers then decrease the probability that agents believe misinformation. At the same time, they increase polarisation, as disagreeing agents interact less frequently, leading to a trade-off which has implications for the optimal intervention of a platform wishing to reduce misinformation. We characterise this intervention by delineating the most effective change in the platform's algorithm, which for peer-to-peer connections involves reducing the extent to which relatively isolated high and low social trust agents interact with one another. JEL: D82 D83 D85 Keywords: communication, misinformation, network design, platforms Date: 2022–01–14 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cam:camdae:2204&r=&r=soc

2. The legacies of armed conflict: insights from stayees and returning forced migrants Isabel Ruiz; Carlos Vargas-Silva How does conflict, displacement, and return shape trust, reconciliation, and community engagement? And what is the relative impact of exposure to violence on these indicators? In this paper we explore these questions by focusing on the legacies of armed conflict and the differences between those who stayed in their communities of origin during the conflict (stayees) and those who were displaced internally and internationally and who returned home over time (returnees). Keywords: Trust, Conflict, Forced migration Date: 2022 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:unu:wpaper:wp-2022-17&r=&r=soc

3. Settlers and Norms Joanne Haddad The distinctive traits of early settlers at initial stages of institutional development may be crucial for cultural formation. In 1973, the cultural geographer Wilbur Zelinsky postulated this in his doctrine of “first effective settlement”. There is however little empirical evidence supporting the role of early settlers in shaping culture over the long run. This paper tests this hypothesis by relating early settlers’ culture to within state variation in gender norms in the United States. I capture settlers’ culture using past female labor force participation, women’s suffrage, and financial rights at their place of origin. I document the distinctive characteristics of settlers’ populations and provide suggestive evidence in support of the transmission of gender norms across space and time. My results show that women’s labor supply is higher, in both the short and long run, in U.S. counties that historically hosted a larger settler population originating from places with favorable gender attitudes. My findings shed new light on the importance of the characteristics of immigrants and their place of origin for cultural formation in hosting societies. Keywords: female labor force participation, settlers, gender norms, cultural formation Date: 2022–01 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:eca:wpaper:2013/338088&r=&r=soc

4. Justifying Dissent Leonardo Bursztyn (University of Chicago and NBER); Georgy Egorov (Kellogg School of Management and NBER,); Ingar Haaland (University of Bergen and CESifo); Aakaash Rao (Harvard University); Christopher Roth (University of Cologne and CEPR) Dissent plays an important role in any society, but dissenters are often silenced through social sanctions. Beyond their persuasive effects, rationales providing arguments supporting dissenters' causes can increase the public expression of dissent by providing a "social cover" for voicing otherwisestigmatized positions. Motivated by a simple theoretical framework, we experimentally show that liberals are more willing to post a Tweet opposing the movement to defund the police, are seen as less prejudiced, and face lower social sanctions when their Tweet implies they had first read scientific evidence supporting their position. Analogous experiments with conservatives demonstrate that the same mechanisms facilitate anti-immigrant expression. Our findings highlight both the power of rationales and their limitations in enabling dissent and shed light on phenomena such as social movements, political correctness, propaganda, and anti-minority behavior. JEL: D83 D91 P16 J15 Keywords: Dissent; social image; rationales; social media Date: 2022–01 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ajk:ajkdps:141&r=&r=soc

5. Strangers and Foreigners: Trust and Attitudes toward Citizenship Bertocchi, Graziella (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia); Dimico, Arcangelo (Queen's University Belfast); Tedeschi, Gian Luca (University of Padua) We analyze the relationship between natives' attitudes towards citizenship acquisition for foreigners and trust. Our hypothesis is that, in sub-Saharan Africa, the slave trade represents the deep factor behind contemporary attitudes toward citizenship, with more intense exposure to historical slave exports for an individual's ethnic group being associated with contemporary distrust for strangers, and in turn opposition to citizenship laws that favor the inclusion of foreigners. We find that individuals who are more trusting do show more positive attitudes towards the acquisition of citizenship at birth for children of foreigners, that these attitudes are also negatively related to the intensity of the slave trade, and that the underlying link between trust and the slave trade is confirmed. Alternative factors—conflict, kinship, and witchcraft beliefs—that, through trust, may affect attitudes toward citizenship, are not generating the same distinctive pattern of linkages emerging from the slave trade. JEL: J15 K37 N57 O15 Z13 Keywords: citizenship, trust, slave trade, migration, ethnicity, conflict, kinship, witchcraft Date: 2022–01 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp15042&r=&r=soc

6. No inventor is an island: social connectedness and the geography of knowledge flows in the US Diemer, Andreas; Regan, Tanner Do informal social ties connecting inventors across distant places promote knowledge flows between them? To measure informal ties, we use a new and direct index of social connectedness of regions based on aggregate Facebook friendships. We use a well-established identification strategy that relies on matching inventor citations with citations from examiners. Moreover, we isolate the specific effect of informal connections, above and beyond formal professional ties (co-inventor networks) and geographic proximity. We identify a significant and robust effect of informal ties on patent citations. Further, we find that the effect of geographic proximity on knowledge flows is entirely explained by informal social ties and professional networks. We also show that the effect of informal social ties on knowledge flows is greater for new entrepreneurs or ‘garage inventors’, for older or ‘forgotten’ patents, and for flows across distant technology fields. It has also become increasingly important over the last two decades. JEL: O33 R12 Z13 Keywords: diffusion; informal networks; knowledge flows; social connectedness; PhD Studentship Date: 2022–03–01 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:113337&r=&r=soc

7. The preserving effect of social protection on social cohesion during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from Kenya Strupat, Christoph This paper examines empirically whether social protection in the form of adapted social assistance programmes are affecting social cohesion during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using unique primary data from nationally representative, in-person surveys from Kenya allows for the exploration of the effect of social protection on attributes of social cohesion (trust, cooperation and identity). The analysis employs a difference-in-differences approach that compares households with and without social assistance coverage before and after the first wave of the pandemic. The findings suggest that social assistance programmes have a preserving effect on social cohesion. Attributes of social cohesion remain stable for beneficiaries, while they decline for non-beneficiaries due to the pandemic. This result is pronounced in regions that faced larger restrictions due to government lockdown policies. Overall, the results suggest that existing national social assistance programmes and their adaptation in times of large covariate shocks, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, can be beneficial for social cohesion. JEL: F63 I15 Keywords: social protection; social assistance; social cohesion; COVID-19; Kenya Date: 2021–12 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:111501&r=&r=soc

8. The Politicized Pandemic: Ideological Polarization and the Behavioral Response to COVID-19 Gianluca Grimalda (Kiel Institute for the World Economy); Fabrice Murtin (OECD Statistics and Data Directorate); David Pipke (Kiel Institute for the World Economy); Louis Putterman (Brown University); Matthias Sutter (Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods, University of Cologne, University of Innsbruck, and IZA) We investigate the relationship between political attitudes and prosociality in a survey of a representative sample of the U.S. population during the first summer of the COVID-19 pandemic. We find that an experimental measure of prosociality correlates positively with adherence to protective behaviors. Liberal political ideology predicts higher levels of protective behavior than conservative ideology, independently of the differences in prosociality across the two groups. Differences between liberals and conservatives are up to 4.4 times smaller in their behavior than in judging the government’s crisis management. This result suggests that U.S. Americans are more polarized on ideological than behavioral grounds. JEL: D01 D72 D91 I12 I18 H11 H12 Keywords: Polarization, Ideology, Trust in politicians, COVID-19, Prosociality, Health behavior, Worries Date: 2022–01 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ajk:ajkdps:138&r=&r=soc

9. Social norms or enforcement? A natural field experiment to improve traffic and parking fine compliance Sinning, Mathias; Zhang, Yinjunjie Very little is known about the efficient collection of fines despite their indispensable contribution to local government budgets. This paper fills an important gap in the literature by studying the effectiveness of deterrence (enforcement) and non-deterrence (social norms) letters that aim to improve the collection of traffic and parking fines. We discuss potential mechanisms through which these letters may affect fine compliance and present results from a natural field experiment that was implemented in collaboration with the government of the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). We find that both letters increase fine payments significantly relative to a control group that did not receive a letter. The effect of the enforcement letter is stronger than that of the social norms letter. Our analysis of heterogenous treatment effects indicates that addressing social norms does not change the behavior of young offenders, those who committed a speeding offence, those with a long outstanding debt and those with a debt above the median. In contrast, the enforcement letter is generally effective across subgroups. JEL: H26 K42 C93 Keywords: Fine compliance,natural field experiment,nudges,enforcement,social norms Date: 2021 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:rwirep:900&r=&r=soc

10. Voice and Political Engagement: Evidence From a Natural Field Experiment Anselm Hager (Humboldt University); Lukas Hensel (Peking University); Christopher Roth (University of Cologne); Andreas Stegmann (University of Warwick) We conduct a natural field experiment with a major European party to test whether giving party supporters the opportunity to voice their opinions increases their engagement in the party’s electoral campaign. In our experiment, the party asked a random subset of supporters for their opinions on the importance of different topics. Giving supporters more opportunities to voice their opinions increases their engagement in the campaign as measured using behavioral data from the party’s smartphone application. Survey data reveals that our voice treatments also increase other margins of campaign effort as well as perceived voice. Our evidence highlights that parties can increase their supporters’ investment in the democratic process by implementing policies that increase their voice. Keywords: Political engagement, Inclusion, Voice, Agency, Natural Field Experiment,Canvassing JEL Classification:D8, P16 Date: 2021 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cge:wacage:601&r=&r=soc

11. Firm innovation and generalized trust as a regional resource Bischoff, Thore Sören; Hipp, Ann; Runst, Petrik Generalized trust within regions represents an important firm resource. We provide empirical evidence on the impact of trust among people in regions on innovation using two distinct data sets. The first one contains firm-level data and is used to analyze how trust affects firm-level innovation in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). The second data set is used to analyze the trust-innovation relationship within regions. It allows us to capture innovation in the form of patents and explore spatial patterns. Our observation period ranges from 2004 to 2019. We apply a multilevel approach, panel data models as well as spatial techniques. The results show that generalized trust has a positive impact on a firm's innovativeness, which is particularly strong for small and medium-sized firms and in regions with relatively low levels of trust. JEL: D02 D83 O12 O18 O31 Keywords: Trust,innovation,regional innovation systems,SMEs Date: 2022 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:ifhwps:322021&r=&r=soc

12. Combating online hate speech: The impact of legislation on Twitter Andres, Raphaela; Slivko, Olga We analyze the impact of the Network Enforcement Act, the first regulation which aims at restraining hate speech on large social media platforms. Using a difference-in- differences framework, we measure the causal impact of the German law on the prevalence of hateful content on German Twitter. We find evidence of a significant and robust decrease in the intensity and volume of hate speech in tweets tackling sensitive migration-related topics. Importantly, tweets tackling other topics as well as the tweeting style of users are not affected by the regulation, which is in line with its aim. Our results highlight that legislation for combating harmful online content can influence the prevalence of hate speech even in the presence of platform governance mechanisms. JEL: H41 J15 K42 L82 L86 Keywords: Social Networks,User-Generated Content,Hate Speech,Policy Evaluation Date: 2021 URL: http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:zewdip:21103&r=&r=soc

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